Assessment of PFAS pollution in fish and water from the United Kingdom and Spain and implications for human exposure

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are widespread environmental contaminants with significant persistence, bioaccumulation potential and human health concerns. This study assesses the occurrence, distribution and dietary exposure risks of PFAS contamination in edible fish from the United Kingdom and Spain. Fish samples (UK: n = 238; Spain: n = 50) and UK water samples (freshwater: n = 8099; groundwater: n = 2047 and saline water: n = 180) were collected between 2020 and 2024 and analysed for multiple PFAS compounds. Results indicate widespread PFAS contamination in both fish and water, with PFOS being the predominant compound detected. However, significant geographical differences were observed. Spanish fish exhibited higher concentrations of long-chain PFAS (e.g., PFNA, PFDoDA, PFUnA) and emerging compounds (6:2 FTS), while UK fish showed elevated PFOS levels. Dietary exposure estimates revealed that intake from consumption of fish likely exceeds the EFSA tolerable weekly intake (4.4 ng/kg body weight) in both countries, with Spanish consumers facing a higher estimated intake (24.62 ng/kg) compared to British consumers (10.71 ng/kg). PFAS contamination in UK water sources was extensive, with persistent pollution in both freshwater and groundwater. A hotspot in Moreton-in-Marsh was identified where contamination levels exceeded drinking water safety thresholds, likely linked to firefighting foam and industrial activities. The findings underscore the urgent need for stronger regulatory measures, continued biomonitoring, and remediation efforts to mitigate PFAS exposure risks.